GYPSIES

Treatment
The Gypsies of Hungary
Spanish Gypsies
Later History
In the World Today

Manja in Countess Maritza is a Gypsy and is happy and well-treated as are most in operetta. But historically most Gypsies have been outcasts from 'decent society'. Who are the Gypsies? Where did they originate? Why are they still shunned in much of the world?

The name 'Gypsy' comes from the word Egyptian. While hey themselves claimed Egypt as their ancestral home, more probably they originated in India and started to arrive in Europe during the second millennium BC. (Their language, Romany, derives from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India.) Over the first millennium AD, small bands migrated to the west and, when they reached what is today Palestine, they split, some going to the north through Europe, the rest going south to Egypt and west across North Africa. They moved in small groups rather than a concentrated mass, gradually spreading, always shunned and forced to move on, living as second-class citizens on the fringes of society. During the fifteenth century, elements of each group reached Spain.

The number of legends that became attached to them during their long journey made them pariahs in medieval Christian Europe. According to some of these stories:

They were descendants of Cain, the son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother Abel. As a result, they were cursed to be nomads: "And the Lord said unto Cain ... now art thou cursed from the earth. … When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield unto thee her strength; a fugitive and a vagabond shalt thou be in the earth" (Genesis IV, 9-12). Thus Gypsies could never become farmers, they were doomed to be wandering musicians and metalworkers, bearing the mark of Cain. (This is probably the Greek letter Tau, worn as a means of recognition, not a stigma.)

Gypsies forged the nails for the crucifixion of Christ, massacred the children of Bethlehem and advised Judas to betray Jesus. In punishment they were haunted by a red-hot nail and must wander forever.

Ezekiel's prophecy: "I shall scatter the Egyptians among the nations" (Ezekiel XXIX, 12) confirmed for them their own claim to have come from Egypt.

Some regarded them as the descendants of the two lost tribes of Israel. Others said Gypsies had been cursed by God because they had refused to shelter Mary and Joseph on their flight to Egypt. The Gypsies, in trying to mitigate this charge, did not deny it, but said they were on a pilgrimage in penance for the crime, thus enhancing the legend.

Treatment
NOTE: The following is a general summary which attempts to summarize the plight of Gypsies in the world. Actual conditions varied from country to country and from time to time. More specific information is given in later paragraphs.

Many parallels can be drawn between the treatment of Gypsies and Jews. Throughout their history, like the Jews of the Diaspora, Gypsies were feared and driven from country to country. Restrictions were placed on their dress and permitted occupations. Those who converted to Christianity were still regarded with suspicion as not being true to the Faith. Anti-Gypsy laws were issued in country after country. Banished from France, those caught were flogged and deported by force. Other countries followed suit, and the already nomadic people were forced into continuous migration. In Holland Gypsy Hunts were organized to round them up for deportation. After the Netherlands gained independence, Gypsies were given long prison sentences. (This loss of freedom was the worst punishment of all. They preferred to die, and many did.) Denmark did not revoke its deportation laws until 1849. The Gypsies there at that date could stay but no others could immigrate. In 1554 English law imposed the death penalty on Gypsies and all who associated with them. In 1560 Archbishop Petri of Sweden decreed: "The priest shall not concern himself with the Gypsies. He shall neither bury their corpses nor christen their children". In Paris, Christians who had their palms read by Gypsies were excommunicated. Until Louisiana was purchased from France by the United States, thousands were transported there. Spain and Portugal also sent many to their colonies in the New World.

An alternative to deportation was enforced settlement. In much of Europe, nomadism was prohibited. They were forced to live in separate quarters just as the Jews were forced to live in ghettos. Wandering Gypsies could be placed in serfdom. Some serfs could often be sold and, in the United States, their status became very like that of slaves. All were forbidden to speak their own language or wear traditional clothing. Children were taken from their families to be fostered by Christians. Craft guilds excluded them from membership, making it difficult for them to earn an honest living. Forced to turn to thieving and trickery, their already unsavory reputation soon worsened. The only honest occupations open to them were those of musician and dancer, but there were even restrictions on these. As late as 1912, France enacted legislation which required Gypsies to carry special identification papers.

The Gypsies of Hungary
The Gypsies of Central Europe were the Rom or Romany. Although some were reported in the army of King Béla IV (r. 1235-1270, they first appeared in Hungary in any numbers in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They were fleeing the Turks in the Balkans and were granted travel permission because they could give information on the Turks; many abandoned itinerant lifestyles. In the sixteenth century a 'Chief of Gypsies' was appointed. They had their own judges and Gypsy musicians performed at court, but most were Muslims, and they became more and more isolated. In the seventeenth century, the Empress Maria Theresa enacted a number of decrees concerning them. They were prohibited from using the name Gypsy or Rom, but had to be called 'new peasants' or 'new Hungarians'. Restrictions were placed on their marriages and children were taken away to be raised by Christian families. Boys twelve to sixteen were to be taught a trade, but they had trouble finding jobs. They were eligible for military service. Rom who entered Hungary illegally were to be branded, any who gave them food were to be punished, and those who reentered after being deported were to be executed. Placards of all these regulations were posted, but most Rom were illiterate!

Central European Gypsies practiced certain traditional crafts, primary coppersmithing and ironworking, but they used archaic technology, could not join the guilds, and they lacked legal protection. Since they spoke many different dialects, there was little unity among them. Hungarian Gypsies, called Romungros, produced bricks and were musicians, peddlers and street performers. They were excluded from land ownership and could play no role in agriculture.

The great Hungarian composer Franz Liszt (1811-1886) became interested in Gypsy music which he used in his nineteen Hungarian Rhapsodies written over a forty year period. These introduced their music to the rest of the world. He also wrote Gypsies and Their Music in Hungary (1859) and adopted a Gypsy child and raised him as his own.

Population and census estimates vary widely from source to source, but when Kálmán, the composer of Countess Maritza, was born, there were probably about 280,000 Gypsies in Hungary. Only about 5-6% were literate. Those who did get an education tended to assimilate with the rest of the population and no longer appeared as Gypsies. After World War I (the time in which Countess Maritza is set), almost all of the Rom population was unemployed. As 'foreigners' they were not eligible for social services, and the market for their traditional crafts disappeared. A Rom school opened in 1935 but few of those interested in improving their education were willing to identifying themselves as Rom to be able to attend. The happy group in Countess Maritza is not typical of most Gypsies of the time.

Spanish Gypsies
While the Rom, wandered throughout the world and avoided adopting local customs, the Gypsies of Spain, who were cut off by geography, became partially Hispanized, and were called Gitános. They were also known as New Castilians and Flemings. The latter name was given to those who had arrived from Germany due to confusion of Germany and Flanders. The word for Flemish in Spanish is flamenco and this version of their name still clings to the dance for which they are famous. Spanish Gypsies speak Caló, rather than Romany. In the fifteenth century they were deprived of all occupations compatible with a nomadic life, such as horse-trading or blacksmithing. As in the rest of Europe, they were subject to many edicts of banishment from Spain, but these had little effect. For example: according to the 1499 Edict of Medina del Campo, under Ferdinand and Isabella, "to contain the Gypsy scourge, they were to be destroyed". They were given sixty days to leave the kingdom. After that, any caught would be given one hundred lashes and expelled. If caught again they would be made slaves. Those allowed to remain under special license were commanded to seek out masters and cease their wanderings. They were forbidden to speak their own language, to wear distinctive dress, to tell fortunes, or to trade horses. The edict was ignored.

In the early eighteenth century those who disobeyed were branded on the forehead and condemned to death. Finally, in 1783, Charles III tried a different tactic. A law dated Sept. 19, 1783, "Rules for repressing and chastising the vagrant mode of life, and other excesses, of those who are called Gitános", included the statement: "It is my will that those who abandon the said mode of life, dress, language or jargon, be admitted to whatever offices or employments to which they may apply themselves, and likewise to any guilds or communities, without any obstacle or contradiction being offered to them, or admitted under this pretext within or without courts of law". They were given ninety days to establish themselves as honest citizens. For those who agreed but continued their old ways, "It shall be notified and made known to them, that in case of another relapse, the punishment of death shall be executed upon them without remission".

There are many Gitános in Spain today, the biggest concentrations are in Extramadura, near Portugal, and Andalusia in the south. Some are still wanderers, but many reside in towns in special Gypsy quarters or gitanerias. Now tourist attractions, these areas formerly were hotbeds of smuggling, thievery and other unsavory practices and, in a complete turnaround, Gypsies were forbidden to live together. They ignored this order as they had all others.

During the time of the Inquisition, most Gypsies had no recognized religion and were therefore safe from its depredation, at least as far as heresy was concerned. They could be attacked for their fortune-telling and other practices which were deemed to smack of witchcraft. However, without the wealth and political influence of the Jews, most Gypsies did not excite envy, only contempt. For the most part, they were not worth the Inquisition's time.

Later History
While Gypsies were almost completely unscathed by the Inquisition, they were not so lucky under the Nazis. Everyone knows of the terrible destruction of Jews during the Holocaust. What is less well-known is that Gypsies suffered the same fate. Over 400,000 died in Nazi concentration camps. The Nazis inherited discriminatory laws against Gypsies and carried them further. In spite of the fact that their language was clearly Aryan, they were declared to be non-Aryans and classed with Jews as being the only people in Europe of foreign blood. In Germany all people were categorized into four classes: German and similar races, foreign races, Jews and Gypsies, and colored. A Gypsy was declared "part-Gypsy" for being one-eighth Gypsy. Thus only two of their sixteen great-great-grandparents had to be Gypsies for them to fall under the laws against part-Gypsies. (People with only one Jewish grandparent (i.e. 1/4 Jewish) were not generally affected by anti-Jewish legislation.) Educated Gypsies and part-Gypsies were to be sterilized. Residential camps were established, and Gypsies had to sign documents saying that if they left such a camp, they would be sent to a concentration camp. Later even this did not protect them. Thousands and thousands were seized, their goods were confiscated, and they were sent to death camps such as Buchenwald and Auschwitz. Gypsy children were taken from orphanages and hospitals and sent to the camps. At first they were not gassed, but later they suffered the same fate as the Jews. In all, three-fourths of the Gypsies of Germany disappeared under Nazi rule.

In Hungary they were regarded as 'useless parasites incapable of carrying out a day's work' and as possible criminals. The rest of the population was indifferent to their removal to concentration camps. Prejudice against them even increased after World War II. Under Communist rule, in theory their last remaining source of income, music, disappeared. However, industrialization programs led to the disappearance of unemployment and most Gypsies did get jobs in manufacturing and construction. However, although most men and some women were employed, they had the lowest, poorest-paying jobs and the social stigma remained. They had subsistence but no chance for advancement and were the first to be fired in hard times. Once again, children were removed from families and sent to special schools for the retarded!. By 1975, 75% were in such schools. Along with Jews, they were defined as a 'religious group' and denied the social services available to other minorities. Rom craft guilds were organized and a Rom newspaper started. In 1993 Rom were finally included in the list of minorities and became eligible for social services. However, when a congress of minority groups was attended by Rom, the others walked out. The backlash from such advances often makes things worse. Education is still a major problem. Many children enter elementary school knowing almost no Hungarian words and segregating is widespread. By 1993, 77% of those in their twenties had finished eight grades but few went on. By now about 90% finish elementary school but only 85% of these study in some kind of secondary school and only 15% finish. Fewer than 1% of Hungarian Gypsies hold a university degree. (Note: Reluctance among those who do advance to admit they are Rom makes statistics suspect.)

In the World Today
While exact figures are difficult to establish, there are probably five to six million Gypsies in the world today. A highly fragmented group, they have many languages and no common written language. Thus newspapers and special TV programs have a limited effect. The persecution continues. When the troubles in Kosovo began, there were about 80,000 Gypsies there. Many of the Rom had taken local names, both Albanian and Serbian, although ethnically belonging to neither group. As Rom they were attacked by both sides. For example, those with Serbian names were denied space in the bomb shelters. Those with Albanian surnames were driven out of Kosovo with the ethnic Albanians. Once in the refugee camps they were harassed by their fellow refugees; even the children were attacked. A Catholic Relief Service worker reported: "The look in their eyes when they tried to tear this boy's arms out — there was just fire in their eyes". The Albanians formed lynch mobs and broke down fences trying to reach their Romani victims. When the ethnic Albanians were finally allowed to return home, they refused to allow the Gypsies to go with them. As a result, most are still refugees, ignored by most of the world.

In Great Britain Gypsies are known as 'Travellers' and discrimination is frequent. There are also several groups in America, many from Austro-Hungary, and some are metalworkers, musicians and fortunetellers.

In spite of their existence on the margins of society, Gypsies are a proud people. Holding non-Gypsies in contempt, they consider themselves the Lords of the Earth. Wherever they travel, they are subject to local laws, but they have their own very strict code of conduct. Each Gypsy band is led by a king who punishes offenses against their laws and who deals with outsiders when necessary. Each group is independent, every person responsible for himself and his family. The idea of debt is repugnant; in earlier times, a Gypsy unable to pay a debt was turned over to his creditor as a slave for a year and a day. Many Gypsies have adopted Christian and Muslim faiths, but still adhere to their own marriage and burial customs.

Some Gypsy words have entered other languages. Pal is Romany for "friend"; butter is manteca, the source of the Spanish mantequilla. In spite of a reputation to the contrary, Gypsy rules on cleanliness are strict. Because of this, many have managed to escape illnesses which might otherwise have been caused by their primitive living conditions. They have strict rules against sexual freedom. Boys and girls are not allowed to meet except in the presence of chaperones. As provocative as their dances are, the participants are always fully clothed and the women are always accompanied by relatives among the musicians.