INTRODUCTION
During the sixteenth century it could truly be said that the sun never set on the Spanish Empire. Yet Spain itself was a poor country with limited arable soil. It was isolated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees and there was no political unity. Until the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, it consisted of many independent states, many under Moorish control. Their marriage, and the Reconquista (reconquest of Spain from the Moors) brought some unity but "Spain" was still a loose confederation of almost independent states. What held the realm together was a common faith. There were 9,088 monasteries and about 32,000 Dominican and Franciscan friars. This unity was threatened by the Reformation, and Spain was literally held together by the Inquisition. It was the riches pouring in from the New World which enabled the Spanish Empire to become the greatest power of the sixteenth century. Yet ironically, these riches led to spiraling inflation.

Charles I of Spain (and V of The Holy Roman Empire) inherited Aragón, Valencia, Cataluña, and southern Italy and Sicily from his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand. He inherited Castille, León, Navarre and the Spanish possessions in the New World from his maternal grandmother, Isabella. His inheritance from his father, Philip the Handsome, included Flanders, Holland, Luxembourg, Franche-Comté and a claim to Burgundy as well as the Habsburg lands of Austria, the Tirol and parts of Germany. Later the Philippines and territories in East Africa and in the Indian Ocean were added.

The sixteenth century also saw the flowering of Spanish culture. It was the time of artists such as El Greco (Doménikos Theotokópoulos) and writers such as Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote. The playwright Lope de Vega was Shakespeare's contemporary and was involved with commedia dell'arte. There were many universities and almost all gentlemen were well-educated. However, students were not allowed to attend foreign universities for fear they would become contaminated with heretical ideas.

HISTORY
PRELUDE TO THE AGE OF PHILIP II AND CERVANTES
Ferdinand and Isabella, who married in 1469, uniting two of Spain's largest kingdoms, were first cousins. Their first daughter, Isabel, married the King of Portugal. Their second daughter, Juana, married the Habsburg, Philip the Handsome of Burgundy, and their third daughter, Catherine (of Aragón) married England's Prince Arthur and then his brother Henry VIII. When Isabella died in 1504, Ferdinand retired to Aragón and Philip the Handsome took over Castile, excluding Juana from the government but not from the title of Queen of Castile. Juana early showed signs of 'insanity', possibly schizophrenia, and although the Cortes confirmed her as Queen of Castile, her six-year-old son Charles was made the nominal ruler under a regency council.

CHARLES I (1500-1558)
The son of Philip the Handsome and Juana was born in Ghent in what is now Belgium and spent the first seventeen years of his life in the Netherlands. He finally arrived in Spain in 1517, in forty ships and accompanied by his Flemish court. He knew no Castilian Spanish and was completely ignorant of Spanish affairs. Of his forty years as King, he spent only sixteen in Spain. In 1519 he was elected, largely by massive bribery, as the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. (He was crowned in 1520 and then again by the Pope in 1530.) 1520 was a momentous year in other ways. Charles went to England to visit Henry VIII and his aunt Catherine of Aragón and to propose a marriage with their daughter Mary Tudor, then aged six. The idea was that she would be sent to Spain to be brought up there. But Cardinal Wolsey refused, saying she could be trained as a Spanish lady in England. Charles later broke the engagement, and many years later, Mary married his son, Philip II.

In 1526 Charles married Isabella of Portugal. They met for the first time on March 9 in Seville and were married at 1 the next morning! They had six legitimate children, four of whom survived infancy. The future Philip II was born at Valladolid on May 21, 1527. Charles also had two illegitimate children, Margaret of Parma and Don Juan of Austria. He spent most of the rest of his life in the north, visiting all of his European domains, leaving his wife, and later Philip, as regent. His effective capital was Brussels.

Never very strong, Charles started to go gray at thirty-six; by age forty he had gout. At fifty-five he was an old man. As soon as his mother Juana died, he abdicated (1558). His son Philip inherited Spain, its overseas territories, some of Italy, and the Netherlands. Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, who ironically had been raised in Spain, became the Holy Roman Emperor, keeping all the German-speaking lands.

It had been the Age of Exploration. Columbus had led the way in 1492. In 1493 the Pope issued a bull setting an imaginary line of demarcation between the claims of Portugal and Spain. The rights to "all islands and mainlands whatever, found or to be found" to the east of it would belong to Portugal, those to the west to Spain. This was confirmed by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas when the line was moved and defined as the "meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands". As a result what is now Brazil became Portuguese but the rest of the Americas became Spanish. Ponce de León landed in Florida in 1512, Cortés entered the future Mexico City in 1519 and Magellan discovered, claimed, and named the Philippines the same year. They were followed by Pizzaro who conquered Peru in 1533.

PHILIP II (1527-1598)
As a boy, the future Philip II of Spain had no real youth. When he was seven, he was given his own household. Which grew to 191 people including 51 pages. His education included Latin, Greek, geography and history. He particularly liked mathematics and could understand and read French, Italian and Portuguese but not speak them very well. He loved nature, kept many caged birds, and was happiest out-of-doors. At age thirteen he started to buy his own books. (Some of his earlier purchases were books which were later banned by the Inquisition.) His library was eclectic, encompassing almost every subject including science, architecture, religion and mathematics. There were at least two hundred books on subjects such as magic and astrology. This gave him a wide background, especially in history and geography, of which he often knew more than his advisors. By the end of his life, the library contained 14,000 volumes.

Philip's first wife was Maria of Portugal who was his double first cousin! They had one son, the future Don Carlos, and she died a few days later. He then married Mary Tudor, the Queen of England known as Bloody Mary. When she died, he made a bid to marry her sister, Queen Elizabeth I, but nothing came of it.

His third wife was Elizabeth of Valois, the sister of Francis II of France (the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots). When she left for her new home in Spain Elizabeth was still, at fourteen, little more than a child who still played with dolls. She met the thirty-four-year-old Philip for the first time at their wedding in Spain. The wedding festivities included, jousts (relics of chivalry), bullfights and an auto-da-fé! Elizabeth was known at the Reina de la Paz (the Queen of Peace), and the ten years of their marriage were some of the happiest of Philip's life. He was very fond of her, risking his own health by insisting on staying with her when she was ill with smallpox. Their two daughters were the comfort of Philip's later life. Some of Cervantes's earliest writings were four poems of remembrance at Elizabeth's death.

Finally Philip married Anne of Austria, the mother of the future Philip III.

Religion very important to Philip. He had a deep faith and a conviction of the truth of Roman Catholicism, and he regarded himself as its defender, determined to extirpate all 'idolaters' from his dominions. As self-proclaimed leader of the Counter-Reformation, he presided in person at five autos. He thought of his power in terms of service to God. With the Protestant Elizabeth on the throne of England, he believed its invasion by the Spanish Armada would meet with divine favor.

But he ruined Spain. When he died in 1598, the once great empire was in shambles. His son Philip III was a weak ruler, his successor Philip IV would lead the country from disaster to disaster for forty-four years. In turn, his son Carlos II, the last Habsburg King of Spain, was an epileptic who was called Carlos the Bewitched. All of the unfortunate genetic traits of the Spanish Habsburgs came together in him.

DON JUAN OF AUSTRIA
Don Juan of Austria, the natural born son of the Emperor Charles V by Barbara Blomberg of Augsburg, Germany, was very close to his father. Philip was not told they were brothers until Charles died and left behind documents acknowledging Juan as his son. Philip welcomed him to his court and, in 1568 made him captain-general of the Mediterranean fleet. As such, he became the hero of the great battle of Lepanto during which Cervantes lost the use of his left hand. As many as 127 Ottoman ships were taken, and thousands of Turkish soldiers were killed or captured. 12,000 Christian slaves were freed from the galleys, and Philip received 3,699 Turkish slaves in chains, 174 of whom he granted to Don Juan. It was the worst defeat of a sultan in almost 200 years.

Handsome and healthy, Don Juan was also arrogant and ambitious, and Philip was afraid his brother would want a throne of his own, possibly Scotland or England, so he sent him to the Netherlands where he was hated. When he became ill, the Dutch carried him to a hastily furnished unused pigeon loft. There he died on October 1, 1578. His body was cut to pieces and sewn up in three leather bags. When these reached Spain he was reassembled, dressed, and borne in solemn procession to the Escorial for burial.

THE SPANISH ARMADA
In 1584 Philip II, who had once been the husband of Queen Mary I of England, decided to send a Spanish Armada against the English fleet. Its purpose was threefold: 1) to escort a 30,000-man Spanish army from the Netherlands in an invasion of England, 2) to then move to the Atlantic to stop the English ships which were preying on the Spanish shipping carrying the wealth of the Americas, and 3) to help reverse the Protestant Revolution in the England under his former sister-in-law, Elizabeth I.

Philip at first envisioned a fleet of 94,000 men and almost 600 vessels but, when it finally sailed in 1588, there were 22 galleons (warships) and 108 armed merchant vessels with 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers. The provisioning of the Armada was a huge job and one of those involved was Miguel de Cervantes who went to Seville in 1587 to participate in the requisitioning of the necessary food supplies.

The Armada reached the English Channel where it was met by a larger English fleet and soundly defeated. Deciding to return home by sailing around northern Scotland rather than face the English again, the remains of the once mighty Armada encountered fierce storms and further losses of ships and men. In the end, 67 ships, with about 10,000 men, limped back to Spain.

THE SAN DIEGO CONNECTION
On September 28, 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed into what is now San Diego Bay and landed on Point Loma somewhere near Ballast Point. He claimed the land for Spain and, since it was the eve of the feast of San Miguel, gave that name to the surrounding area. Many years later, Sebastian Vizcaino entered this harbor (November 12, 1602) on the eve of the day of San Diego de Alcalá, and he changed the name of the bay. It was over one hundred years before the site was visited again, but the name San Diego stuck. In 1769, Father Junipero Serra built the first of his missions there.

Just who was the saint for which the present city was named? Early in the fifteenth century, in a small, poor valley near Seville, Spain, a little boy was born and named for Saint James (Santiago or San Diego). As a young man he became a member of the Third Order of St. Francis and lived as a hermit. Then, for thirty years as a lay brother, he worked as a porter at a monastery. Although illiterate, he was sent to the Canary Islands where he hoped to become a martyr to the native tribes. Instead he became the guardian of the convent and converted many people. After Diego returned to Spain, he went to Rome for the canonization of Saint Bernadine of Sienna. While he was there an epidemic broke out; he cared for the sick and turned a convent into a hospital where many miraculous cures were attributed to him. Diego gained fame as an orator, and theologians listened in amazement to this uneducated man. In 1456, he gained a post as a lecturer at the University of Alcalá de Henares, the town in which Cervantes was born. At the end of his life he worked in the infirmary and then, once more, as a humble doorkeeper. He died on November 12, 1463, and when he could not be buried immediately, people noted that his corpse remained uncorrupted; they could detect the 'odor of sanctity'. The students petitioned for beatification, but nothing came of it until Don Carlos, the son and heir of Philip II of Spain fell down stairs in Alcalá, and injured his head. No doctors could help, but the body of Diego, now almost one hundred years dead, was placed in the prince's bed and 'cured' him. The grateful Philip, convinced of a genuine miracle, petitioned Pope Sixtus V for the canonization of the humble monk. The Pope soon complied, and he was named Saint Didicus the Latin version of the name. In Spanish it becomes San Diego.

Thus, if Don Carlos had not fallen down the stairs, San Diego might still be named San Miguel.

NOTE: All of the material above is an abridgment from articles first written for San Diego Opera in connection with the production of Verdi's Don Carlo.

LA MANCHA
The name of the region comes from the Arabian ma-ansha which means "no water". Ironically, in Spanish mancha means spot, blemish or stigma, and some think Cervantes was making fun of the region when he set Don Quixote there. However, he probably chose it because it was plain and unromantic, not the usual site for the heroic knight-errant of chivalric romances.

La Mancha, south of Madrid, is in the heart of the Iberian peninsula, part of the present day Autonomous Region of Castilla-La Mancha with Toledo as its capital. It is mainly dry table land, and it is still noted for its many windmills. It is . During conflicts between the Moors and the Christians, it was a frontier region and the landscape is still dotted with castles and their ruins. It is said that the real Spain lives on here, but this is about to change. It is soon to become the new home of a Las Vegas style gambling and leisure complex.

El Toboso, the home of Don Quixote's imaginary lady Dulcinea (portrayed in fictional real life by Aldonza Lorenzo) is a real town in the province of Toledo. Visitors today can see statues of Dulcinea and Don Quixote in the plaza, visit Dulcinea's house (a traditional 16th century hidalgo palace reconstructed in 1960), and view various editions of the novel in the Cervantes Museum. There is also the fifteenth century convent of the Trinitarians, the order which arranged Cervantes's ransom from Algeria. Today El Toboso has a population of a little over 2,000

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CLIMATE
Cervantes lived from 1547-1616 during the climax and decline of Spain's golden age. Silver from the Americas was pouring in, and the size of the Spanish Empire rivaled that of Ancient Rome. It was a period of social and economic change. Yet, most of Spain was still poor,with the gap between the rich and poor steadily increasing. Most of the roads were little more than tracks and, while more and more land was coming under cultivation, production was low and declined during the latter half of the century, a situation aggravated by drought and poor management. The Church controlled twenty percent of the land. The main "industry" was sheep raising. Prices were controlled, but production costs spiraled and there were many shortages. It became harder for farmers to pay taxes, and Cervantes's task of collecting supplies for the Armada was very difficult.

The rich aristocracy was relatively small and did not include the tens of thousands who were able to claim petty hidalgo status. These had little money but were exempt from taxes, adding to the poverty of those who could not claim to be "noble". Cervantes and Don Quixote exemplify these poor hidalgos. Most of the land was owned by the rich nobles and worked by peasant tenants. Fewer than one percent of the peasants owned their own land. Yet, all the people of Spain, even the poorest, in contrast to those of other European countries, had a sense of honor, status and freedom. The poor were proud, with a sense of their own worth and were not humble. Sancho Panza exemplifies these people.

The Protestant Reformation formed the background for much of what was happening in Spain. When the future Charles V was nine, Calvin was born. He was seventeen when Martin Luther posted his ninety-five theses on the church door at Wittenberg. In response, Spain became a bastion of Catholicism and isolated itself from the rest of Europe to sustain its religion. Students were not allowed to study abroad. The first of Index of forbidden books was published by the Inquisitor General in 1551*. Religion permeated the government. The Santa Hermandad (Holy Brotherhood) was the name of the government police force founded by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was funded from taxes on nonnobles, and some of the funds were used to help finance the first voyage of Columbus. They kept order on the highways and, despite the name had no connection with the Inquisition. When the Jews were expelled in 1492, most of the Moors also left, although their official expulsion was not until 1609. Purity of blood (limpieza de sangre) became more and more important. Since converso blood was more common among the upper and middle classes, most of the poor, like Sancho Panza, had ‘pure blood', another factor contributing to their pride of status. In Don Quixote Sancho Panza boasts of his own pure blood (Part II, Chapter IV).

* In 1632, part of one sentence was purged from Don Quixote Book 2 Chapter 36 by the Index. ("... works of charity performed in a lukewarm and halfhearted way have no merit or value whatsoever.") It was not reinstated in Spanish editions until 1863. Despite how he is portrayed in Man of La Mancha, this is the only recorded incident of Cervantes or his work being in conflict with the Inquisition.

ARTISTIC LIFE
The most famous "Spanish" artist of the time, a contemporary of Cervantes, was another "Man of La Mancha" by adoption. The Crete-born Greek, Dominos Theotokópoulos, better known as El Greco (1541-1614), studied in Venice and spent time in Rome before going, in 1577, to Madrid and then Toledo. (Cervantes was in Algiers at the time.) Toledo, the capital of La Mancha, was also the religious capital of Spain and a prosperous city. El Greco hoped to make a living at the Spanish Court but did not find favor with Philip II and spent the rest of his life in Toledo. One of his best known paintings is his "View of Toledo".

LITERATURE
During Cervantes time there were some twenty universities in Spain and it had one of most literate societies in Europe. The fact that so many Spaniards could read, or were often read to, contributed to the success of Don Quixote.

Cervantes was not considered an important literary figure during his lifetime. The most revered writer was Lope de Vega (1562-1635). It is true that he was a much better poet than Cervantes "one of the most sublime in the Spanish language", but his prose works were inferior. Educated at the University of Alcalá, he produced about 1,800 comedias and 400 autos, a prodigious output. In one of the plays, the hero, Don Ottavio duels with a statue. One of the threads of the story was later woven into the story of Don Juan. The paths of the two writers crossed frequently, and they often criticized each other. Lope de Vega once said there was not poet as bad as Cervantes nor anyone so stupid as to praise Don Quixote. Like Cervantes he was of noble but relatively poor birth and, as Cervantes had fought at Lepanto, de Vega sailed with the later Spanish Armada. In contrast to the private Cervantes, Lope de Vega was outgoing and charming and had many friends. Notorious for his love affairs, he became a priest in 1614. Despite the success of Don Quixote, Cervantes often felt inferior to him.

Another, slightly later, writer was the monk Gabriel Téllez (1583-1648), who used the pen name Tirso de Molina. He wrote El burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra (The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest) the story of Don Juan. Born in Madrid and also educated at Alcalá, he became a friar. He may have met Lope de Vega while he was in Toledo in 1612-1615. In 1616 he was sent with six other monks to the island of Santo Domingo, where he taught theology. After his return to Spain he had a period of intense literary activity. In 1640, a rule was made that no inhabitant of a friary could have in his possession any book of 'profane plays' or poetry, or write any poetry or prose which attacked the government. He ignored the order, but he remained a monk all his life, serving as the prior of several monasteries and as historian of the Order of Mercy. In all, he wrote over two hundred plays, of which fifty-four exist today.

THE THEATRE
Religious Theatres
Spanish drama grew out of church pageants at religious festivals. They were first presented in church during Mass and on special feast days such as Christmas and Corpus Christi. Later they moved outdoors under the open skies. Some times there were processions accompanied by such dramas as Adam and Eve and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. In the beginning they were acted by priests, choirboys and, sometimes, members of the congregation, none of whom were paid. There were also medieval mysteries plays based on the Bible, and sometimes there were comic interludes. Since there was seldom a stage, carts with scenery on them were often used, sometimes one on each side of the playing area. Like floats bearing tableaus they could easily be moved to effect scene changes. Some of the effects could be spectacular such as in a play about Samson in which the temple actually collapsed in front of the audience.

A special type of play was the one act auto sacramental, usually centered on the sacrament of the Eucharist, performed on the feast of Corpus Christi, and always outdoors. Autos were often allegorical and featured characters such as Vice, Faith, Sin, Virtue et cetera. The name auto also became attached to the more notorious auto-da-fé, itself a form of a religious pageant. Lope de Vega wrote several of these but most of his are now lost.

Early Public Theatres
By the beginning of the sixteenth century the actors in autos started to be paid and secular plays developed. However, little documentation about the physical theatre of the time remains. Most of what we know of the settings must be inferred from the plays themselves, from the stage directions and from literary references. Madrid's earliest commercial playhouses were connected with hospitals and confraternities which used them to raise money, and their records provide some information.

Soon after 1500 came the rise of comedias which were written in prose rather than in the poetry of the autos and were mostly pastorals. Lope de Rueda (1510?-1565?) was one of the first of Spain's actor-managers and dramatists, acknowledged by both Lope de Vega and Cervantes as the founder of Spanish professional drama. According to Cervantes he worked as a metal beater and started acting in autos. The works he wrote were not printed, but we know they had about sixteen characters, some doubled, so a company of about eight could cover them all. Many were adapted from Italian plays. Strolling players took them all over Spain using inn courtyards and town plazas for stages. Created to be movable, the sets were extremely simple with little or no scenery to indicate scene changes. Plays usually called for two entrances (either end of a curtain across the back of the stage), and an upper window for which a nearby house could be used. Since the characters of comedias were usually ordinary people, most wore everyday dress appropriate to their social status with something to suggestion an occupation, e.g. an apron for a cobbler. There were costumes for special roles, and participants often wore masks. Such plays were also enacted by university students and dramas inspired by the classics began to be presented.

Cervantes wrote of Rueda's time:

All of the impresario's stage properties fit into a sack and were little more than a few white sheepskin coats decorated with gilt leather and a few beards and wigs and shepherds' crooks. ... The plays were colloquies or eclogues [short pastoral poems] between two or three shepherds and a shepherdess; they were adorned and expanded with two or three interludes, about a negress, a pimp, a fool or a Basque, for all of these characters were acted by Lope [de Rueda] with the greatest skill and excellence that can be imagined. ... At that time there was no stage machinery or fights between Moors and Christians on foot or on horseback; there were no characters that would come out, or appear to come out, of the center of the earth, through the hole in a stage which consisted for four benches set in a square, with four to six boards on top of them. ... And there were certainly no clouds descending from heaven and earth with angels or souls. The decoration of the theatre was an old blanket drawn by two ropes from one side to the other which made what they [now] call the ‘tiring room'. The musicians, without a guitar, stood behind it, singing some ancient ballad.

Since theatres were in the open, the audience and players boiled in the summer, froze in the winter, and got wet in the rain. It is just such a setting which is portrayed in the opening of the movie version of Man of La Mancha, and "Sancho" arrives at the prison in both the stage and movie version carrying a trunk containing all of the company's costumes and props.

Corrales
By the time Cervantes returned to Spain from Algiers, troops of actors had begun to look for permanent places to play. There were now secular theatrical groups some of which were still associated with hospitals which shared the profits or paid a daily fee and sometimes owned the scenery. They built permanent stages set up in the inner courtyards of blocks of houses (corrales). The spaces were rented out by the house owners who agreed to give passageway into the courtyard for the audiences. One of houses was sometimes used by the troop. The stage was a rectangular platform about 22'x 13' which backed up to a two-story facade with a dressing room below concealed behind a curtain and a gallery above provided with openings which could serve as windows. This gallery above the stage could also be used by spectators when not needed by actors. The stage platform communicated with the space below it by a trap door. The stage was framed by stepped rows of seating for the privileged above which were grill protected windows for women. The pit in front was for ordinary people. Many theatres had awnings to shade the stage, and later the audiences, from sun and rain. In fact, the Spanish theatres of Cervantes's time had many features in common with those of his contemporary, Shakespeare.

Costumes tried to represent the period, status and role of actors. Women sometimes dressed as men and vice versa. The furniture was basic. The ‘autor de comedias' such as Lope de Rueda was author, actor and producer. Some of the actors were professionals, paid per performance, with board, lodging, transport and laundry paid by the company. There were often couples and even their children. Actors were given their parts written out but not whole play. Plays by dramatists other than the company autor were also used. Such a dramatist would read his play to the company in an attempt to sell it. This seems to have been the role of Cervantes since, in extant sources, he is not described as an actor (as he is depicted in Man of La Mancha) .

This is the theatre of Lope de Vega and these features are reflected in the stage directions in the plays Cervantes wrote. (Note: Most of his now known plays were not produced until after Don Quixote.) Corrales reached Lima in 1594 and Mexico City in 1597. They were used throughout the seventeenth century and finally replaced by modern theatres in the early eighteenth.

In 1586 there was a ban in Madrid on women on stage which lasted for about a year and half until there was a dispensation for a visiting Italian company provided the women were accompanied by their husbands and wore only feminine dress. Soon women were again permitted in Spain. In 1598 Philip II issued a royal edict closing all of the theatres, but Philip III authorized their reopening, justified by the the hospitals' need to earn money. Still, no comedia could be performed during Lent, Advent, Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide, or at nunneries or monasteries and only after 12:00 noon so people could go to Mass. The material was censored by ‘learned and responsible persons' and autors had to submit lists of their companies each year.

Court Theatres
There were also Court presentations beginning in the fifteenth century. One was Amadís de Gaul and many were based on chivalric literature. They were usually given to celebrate gala occasions and were pageants rather than actual plays. Court theatres were more like those of today, constructed to give perspective and with a proscenium arch, painted backgrounds and wings, as well as facilities for scene changes. They performed plays of all sorts as well as what we would call opera. La púrpura de la rosa (The Blood of the Rose) 1660, was the first opera performed in the Americas (in Lima Peru in 1701). The seventeenth century also saw the birth of the zarzuela, still the Spanish form of what we call operetta.

Note: Most of this material on the theatres was taken from Shergold, N.D.: A History of the Spanish Stage From Medieval times until the end of the Seventeenth Century. The Clarendon Press, 1967.

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Revised July 2009
Please credit Lyric Opera San Diego when using this material.